The Case for Repatriating China's Cultural Objects

Hardcover – 23 Mar 2016

by Zuozhen Liu 

This book investigates China's demands for the repatriation of Chinese cultural relics 'lost' during the country's modern  history. It addresses two main research questions: Can the original owners, or their rightful successors, of cultural objects looted, stolen, or illicitly exported before the adoption of the 1954 Hague Convention and the 1970 UNESCO Convention reclaim their cultural objects pursuant to remedies provided by international or national law? And what are the philosphical, ethical, and cultural considerations of identity underlying the international conventions protecting cultural objects and claims made for repatriating them? The first part of the book explores current positive legal regimes, while the second part focuses on the philosphical, ethical, and cultural considerations regarding repatriation of cultural objects. Consisting of seven chapters and an introduction, it outlines the loss of Chinese cultural relics in modern history and the normative framework for the protection of cultural heritage. It presents case studies designed to assess the possibility of seeking legal remedies for restitution under contemporary legal regimes and examines the cultural and ethical issues underpinning the international conventions protecting cultural heritage and claims for the repatriation of cultural heritage. It also discusses issues of cultural identity, the right to cultural identity and heritage, multiculturalism, the politics of recognition, cosmopolitanism, the right to cultural heritage, and other related issues.  The concluding chapter answers the two research 

Buddhist Medicine

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From  the Penn Museum Blog by: Stephen Lang

The Asian Section is happy to host a guest blog post by C. Pierce Salguero, Assistant Professor of Asian History and Religious Studies at Penn State University’s Abington College. He is the author of Translating Buddhist Medicine in Medieval China, published by Penn Press in 2014.

(Photo selection and captions by Stephen Lang)

MEDICINE IN EARLY BUDDHISM

Knowledge about healing and disease has held a central place within Buddhist thought since the earliest times. Taken collectively, Buddhist perspectives on health, disease, healers, patients, therapies, and bodies are often spoken of by scholars and devotees as “Buddhist medicine.” Over the course of the first millennium CE, Buddhist medicine (if we can borrow that term) spread alongside Buddhism as far as Iran, Mongolia, Japan, and Indonesia. Today, it is the foundation of traditional medicine in Tibet, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and other parts of Asia and has become the object of scientific study under the rubrics of “mindfulness” and “meditation.” At the same time that Buddhist medicine has become a transnational tradition, it has always been reinterpreted locally through the lenses of the many different cultures that have adopted it.

Although never its primary concern, the Pāli Buddhist Canon (first written down in first century BCE Sri Lanka) contains a great amount of material pertinent to the history of Indian medicine. Medical ideas appearing in the Pāli Canon include the doctrines of the Four Elements (Earth, Water, Fire, and Wind) and the associated doṣa (defects or humors). These became foundational to both Buddhist and Āyurvedic medicine, and are also similar to concepts from Greco-Roman and Islamic medicine, although each tradition would interpret these doctrines in unique ways.

There is every indication that medicine, nursing, and hospice was practiced among the early Indian monastic communities. The monastic codes, or Vinaya, of the various Buddhist schools contain guidelines and narrative descriptions of medical procedures such as herbal and mineral treatments, dietary regulation, and even surgery. Additionally, the accounts of Chinese pilgrims written in the mid-first millennium CE tell us that medicine was an important part of the training of monks at the Indian mahāvihāras, the great monastic “universities.” Nālandā, for example, was famed as an international center for medical training, and monastics from all over Asia came to study in the seventh and eighth centuries.

BUDDHIST MEDICINE IN TRANSNATIONAL CONTEXT

The spread of Buddhism to other parts of Asia in the first millennium CE was one of the most significant examples of sustained cross-cultural exchange in world history. This transmission included the introduction of a large amount of medical material that was embedded within Buddhist writings. Influential aspects of Buddhist medicine included doctrines such as the Four Elements and tridoṣa, Indian and Southeast Asian pharmaceuticals, Buddhist medical deities (including their hagiographies, rituals, and iconography), medical spaces such as dispensaries and hospices within monastic complexes, the ideal of monks as efficacious healers, and several core medical metaphors that structured Buddhist medical thought in places as far away as Tibet, China, Japan, Mongolia, and Southeast Asia.

This Buddha statue from Burma stands in a classic Mandalay style posture. The Buddha’s left hand holds his robe, while his right hand holds a myrobalan seed (Terminalia chebula). This herbal medicine treats both mental and physical disorders and also is reported to induce elevated psychic states that facilitate meditation. Museum Object Number: 2005-10-17A,B

Medical knowledge explicitly associated with Buddhism lost favor in India, replaced by Āyurvedic and Tantric healing traditions associated with Hinduism, and other parts of the Buddhist world—like northwestern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Indonesia—lost the tradition when converting to Islam. Nevertheless, Buddhist medicine remains vitally important, in many other parts of Asia today.

Although core Indian medical doctrines largely did not prevail over the long term in East Asia, Buddhist healing deities such as Guanyin/Kannon and the Medicine Buddha, and the rituals associated with them, remained very important in that region of the world. In a recent book I wrote, Translating Buddhist Medicine in Medieval China, published by Penn Press in 2014, I give a general outline of the wide variety of doctrines, ritual practices, and medical metaphors that prevailed in Chinese Buddhism in the medieval period. As medieval Chinese Buddhism was formative for Japanese and Korean tradition, many of these elements are shared across East Asia.

The central figure in this mural is Bhaisajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha. He is associated with longevity and guards against untimely death, nightmares, evil apparitions, vicious animals, robbers, thieves, and invading states. He is the central figure in an important Buddhist text called the Sutra of the Original Vows of the Master of Medicines Buddha of Lapis Lazuli Radiance , which describes his merits and various ways he comes to aid those beset by sufferings and calamities. Museum Object Number: C688

Among the major Buddhist-influenced medical traditions in Asia, Tibetan medicine is perhaps the most well known. The most influential Tibetan medical treatise is the compilation known as the Four Tantras(Gyushi), which was commonly held to be a teaching by the Medicine Buddha. Developed between the seventh and twelfth centuries, this text synthesized Buddhist and secular Indian medical material, self-consciously integrating this with ideas from the indigenous Tibetan Bōn tradition, as well as with Chinese, Central Asian, Persian, and even Greco-Roman medicine. The Tibetan Tripitaka also contains translations of 22 Indian medical writings, many of which are now no longer extant in Sanskrit. These treatises cover topics as varied as internal medicine, pediatrics, gynecology and obstetrics, toxicology, surgery, pharmacology, alchemy, and veterinary medicine.

Traditional medicine in Thailand also is highly indebted to Buddhism. The modern edition of the Thai medical canon, the Study of Medicine(Phaetthayasaht songkhro), compiled in the nineteenth century, contains numerous texts that suggest important continuities with Buddhist doctrines. This material gives the reader the distinct impression that it originated in multiple geographical and cultural contexts and entered Thailand over the course of many centuries. Some of the sources of Thai medical knowledge certainly included the Pāli Canon and Āyurvedic treatises; however, a significant portion seems to reflect Buddhist knowledge originating in India but not attested in other sources. (The University of Pennsylvania and National Library of Laos have jointly launched the Digital Library of Northern Thai Manuscripts at www.lannamanuscripts.net, a collection that includes numerous texts related to both Buddhism and healing.)

Khmer, Sri Lankan, Burmese, and other Southeast Asian medical traditions are similarly diverse windows on the wide range of Indian medical knowledge transmitted to the region via Buddhism. There are important discrepancies among all of these traditions on the details of even the most basic doctrines. However, these traditions tend to revolve around the doctrines of the Four Elements, the three doṣa, the division of medicinal foods by flavors (options range from three to ten categories), and the understanding that the Elements are specifically affected by the fluctuations of the seasons, personal regimen, environmental factors, and specific pharmaceutical interventions. Differences between these traditions reflect both the diversity of the Indian transmissions as well as the localization of received knowledge in different parts of Asia. Taken as a whole, however, the received texts, archaeologically recovered manuscripts, and contemporary medical traditions discussed here tell us in no uncertain terms that Indian medical doctrines and practices circulated widely and were highly influential throughout Asia, and that Buddhism played a major role in their dissemination and acceptance across the region.

Thangka painting of Bhaisajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha, with his associated deities of Suryaprabha, Chandraprabha, and the 7 Buddhas of Medicine. Thangkas are paintings which are often used as meditational aids. The Buddha holds a bowl made of lapis lazuli which holds a divine healing nectar (amṛta) which is meant to be received through meditation. Museum Object Number 51-41-9

This manuscript contains a “yantra” text that talks about how to protect the body with specially placed marks as well as placing small metal balls under the skin. Among the various pictures included in the text, two images depict a pressure point massage known today as jap sen (“nerve touch”) or nuad boran (“traditional massage”). Museum Object Number: 2003-42-9

BUDDHISM AND MEDICINE IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

As Buddhism is now spreading Westward, the association between Buddhism and medicine has once again been front and center in Buddhist cross-cultural exchange. Scientific research into the mental and physical benefits of Buddhist meditation has been enthusiastically undertaken under the aegis of organizations such as the Mind & Life Institute, various centers for the study of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), and by individual researchers in psychology, psychiatry, neurology, and other disciplines. The University of Pennsylvania Mindfulness, Stress & Health Lab (http://www.mindfulnesslab.org), for example, is currently conducting research into how mindfulness meditation “can improve symptoms of stress, depression, and inflammation in adults living with HIV.” Published medical studies done by Penn researchers and other scientists have already demonstrated the benefits of meditation, notably including the reduction of stress, addiction, and depression, the increase in memory and attention, the slowing of the aging process, and the increase in one’s general sense of well-being. Many of the popular writings on Buddhism available at bookstores, in magazines, and online in the English language mention now highlight such benefits among the chief reasons for taking up Buddhist practice. As Buddhism is translated into scientific and psychological language to increase its appeal to modern audiences, these new ways of talking about the tradition are now playing a major role in how Asian practitioners see Buddhism as well.

As always, translation into a new language and conceptual world brings both gains and losses. The process of “modernization” represents yet another example of the ease with which Buddhist ideas are translated into new cultural and social contexts, as well as the willingness of Buddhist leaders, authors, and practitioners to emphasize the practical benefits of Buddhism in accessible terms in order to gain legitimacy and attract converts. Of course, it also underscores how central the alleviation of all forms of suffering—especially the suffering of illness—remains to the Buddhist tradition as a whole, and how ecumenical Buddhists are in their embrace of this mission.

——

Pierce Salguero is an interdisciplinary humanities scholar interested in the role of Buddhism in the cross-cultural exchange of medical ideas worldwide. He has a Ph.D. in the History of Medicine from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, and is Assistant Professor of Asian History and Religious Studies at Penn State University’s Abington College, in the Philadelphia area. He is the author of Translating Buddhist Medicine in Medieval China, published by Penn Press in 2014. See www.piercesalguero.com.

Stephen Lang is the Lyons Keeper of Collections in the Asian Section at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. He has a degree in Anthropology from Cornell University with an interest in the visual and material culture of East Asia. His blog entries focus on the Asian collections at the Museum.

Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs

العربية | Deutsch | Français | Italiano | فارسی | Русский | Türkmençe | Türkçe

April 27, 2016–July 24, 2016

Metropolitan Museum New York

Exhibition Location: Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Exhibition Hall (Gallery 999)Press Preview: Monday, April 25, 10 am–12 pm

One of the most productive periods in the history of the region from Iran to Anatolia (in modern Turkey) corresponds to the rule of the Seljuqs and their immediate successors, from 1038 to 1307. The Seljuqs were a Turkic dynasty of Central Asian nomadic origin that established a vast, but decentralized and relatively short-lived, empire in West Asia (present-day Turkmenistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey). Under Seljuq rule, the exchange and synthesis of diverse traditions—including Turkmen, Perso-Arabo-Islamic, Byzantine, Armenian, Crusader, and other Christian cultures—accompanied economic prosperity, advances in science and technology, and a great flowering of culture within the realm. Opening April 27 at New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art, the landmark international loan exhibition Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs features spectacular works of art created in the 11th through 13th century from Turkmenistan to the Mediterranean.

The exhibition is made possible by the NoRuz at The Met Fund and the Iranian-American Community.

Approximately 270 objects—including ceramics, glass, stucco, works on paper, woodwork, textiles, and metalwork—from American, European, and Middle Eastern public and private collections are shown. Many of the institutions have never lent works from their collections before. Among the highlights are a dozen important loans from Turkmenistan—the exhibition marks the first time that Turkmenistan as an independent country has permitted an extended loan of a group of historical objects to a museum in the United States.

Under the Great Seljuqs of Iran, the middle class prospered, spurring arts patronage, technological advancements, and a market for luxury goods. In contrast, in Anatolia, Syria, and the Jazira (northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria, and southeastern Turkey)—which were controlled by the Seljuq successor dynasties (Rum Seljuqs, Artuqids, and Zangids)—art was produced under royal patronage, and Islamic iconography was introduced to a predominantly Christian area.

Furthermore, a number of artists had immigrated to the region from Iran in response to the Mongol conquest in 1220. Because patrons, consumers, and artists came from diverse cultural, religious, and artistic backgrounds, distinctive arts were produced and flourished in the western parts of the Seljuq realm.

Exhibition Overview

Arranged thematically, the exhibition opens with a display of artifacts that name the Seljuq sultans and members of the ruling elite. In Central Asia and Iran, inscriptions appeared on coins and architecture. Stucco reliefs representing royal guards, amirs, and courtiers serve to evoke the courts of the Great Seljuq rulers whose names did not appear on objects. In Anatolia, Syria, and the Jazira, names of Seljuq successor rulers and images appeared on a range of objects. Here, the famous 12th-century cloisonné dish bearing the name of Rukn al-Dawla Dawud, a leader of the Artuqids, is featured.

In the second section, the courtly environment and activities associated with the sultans and their courtiers appear on stucco reliefs, ceramics, metalwork, and other media. While depictions of the Seljuq elite on these works were not intended as actual portraits, the distinctive Central Asian facial type was a standard of beauty under Seljuq rule. The earliest extant manuscript of the Shahnama (Book of Kings)—the Persian national epic—created in Anatolia in 1217 is a highlight of this section. Additionally, the remarkable Blacas ewer, with its myriad details of life connected to the court, is prominently exhibited.

The three centuries under Seljuq rule were also a period of inventions; and the many advances in science, medicine, and technology were reflected in the manuscripts, scientific instruments, and medical implements of the time. Pages from the early 13th-century illustrated manuscript The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices feature some of the fanciful inventions of the Muslim polymath and creative genius Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari, whose inventions ranged from clocks and water wheels to automata (robots). Also noteworthy is an early Islamic astrolabe. (Among the many things that could be determined by means of this complex navigational instrument was the direction of Mecca, and hence the direction of prayer.) Also on view is an intricate pharmacy box with separate compartments for musk, camphor, and other ingredients typical of the medieval pharmacopoeia.

Seljuq art abounds with depictions of real, mythological, and hybrid animals on objects large and small. Animal combat was a favorite theme in Iranian art. The double-headed eagle was adopted as the standard of the Seljuq successor states in Anatolia and the Jazira. Harpies (composite creatures having the body of a bird and the face of a human) and sphinxes (beasts with the body of a lion, face of a human, and occasionally the wings of a bird) appear frequently. The exquisite Vaso Vescovali—a lidded bowl engraved and inlaid with silver and decorated with complex astrological imagery—features eight personifications of planets on the lid along with the 12 signs of the zodiac and their associated planets on the base, within a profusion of other ornamentation.

The Seljuqs actively promoted Sunni Islam throughout their territory, building madrasas and mosques, and sponsoring the production of Qur’ans and other religious texts. A number of rare and beautifully ornamented examples of the book arts from the time of the Seljuqs are on view. In Syria, the Jazira, and Anatolia—where the majority of the local population, including some of the ruling elite, was Christian—artifacts bearing Christian iconography continued to be made. And a ritual vessel from Georgia, with a Hebrew inscription, attests to the presence of Jewish populations as well. The same artists often served various religious communities. Hence, the styles and artistic traditions of one group merged with those of another.

The sixth and final section of the exhibition focuses on the funerary arts. A variety of tomb markers, cenotaphs, funerary furniture, and patterned textiles discovered in Seljuq tombs are shown. In a proper Muslim burial, the deceased is wrapped in two or three sheets of plain white cloth; the presence of expensive textiles in a funerary context indicates that popular customs and official practice differed significantly.




The Great Age of the Seljuqs - A Conversation with Deniz Beyazit from Visual & Critical Studies on Vimeo.

The Great Age of Seljuks shown at Met Museum 

Hurriyet Daily News   NEW YORK 28 April 2016 

One of the most productive periods in the history of the region from Iran to Anatolia in modern Turkey corresponds to the rule of the Seljuks and their immediate successors, from 1038 to 1307. 

New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art is hosting a landmark international loan exhibition titled “Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuks” featuring spectacular works of art created in the 11th through 13th century from Turkmenistan to the Mediterranean.

Curated by Sheila Canby, Deniz Beyazıt, and Martina Rugiadi, approximately 270 objects, including ceramics, glass, stucco, works on paper, woodwork, textiles and metalwork from American, European and Middle Eastern public and private collections are shown in the exhibition. Many of the institutions had never lent works from their collections before. 

Among the highlights are a dozen important loans from Turkmenistan, as the exhibition marks the first time that Turkmenistan as an independent country has permitted an extended loan of a group of historical objects to a museum in the U.S.

Arranged thematically, the exhibition opens with a display of artifacts that name the Seljuk sultans and members of the ruling elite. In Central Asia and Iran, inscriptions appeared on coins and architecture. Stucco reliefs representing royal guards, emirs, and courtiers serve to evoke the courts of the Seljuk rulers whose names did not appear on objects.

In Anatolia and Syria, the names of Seljuk successor rulers and images appeared on a range of objects. Here, the famous 12th-century cloisonné dish bearing the name of Rukn al-Dawla Dawud, a leader of the Artuqids, is featured.

In another section, the courtly environment and activities associated with the sultans and their courtiers appear on stucco reliefs, ceramics, metalwork and other objects. 

The earliest extant manuscript of “The Shahnama” (The Book of Kings), the Persian national epic, created in Anatolia in 1217 is a highlight of the section. 

The Seljuks actively promoted Sunni Islam throughout their territory, building madrasas and mosques and sponsoring the production of Qurans and other religious texts. 

A number of rare and beautifully ornamented examples of book art from the time of the Seljuks are on view in the exhibition. In Syria and Anatolia, where the majority of the local population, including some of the ruling elite, was Christian, artifacts bearing Christian iconography continued to be made. And a ritual vessel from Georgia, with a Hebrew inscription, attests to the presence of Jewish populations as well. 

The same artists often served various religious communities. Hence, the styles and artistic traditions of one group merged with those of another.

The final section of the exhibition focuses on the funerary arts. A variety of tomb markers, cenotaphs, funerary furniture and patterned textiles discovered in Seljuk tombs are shown. In a proper Muslim burial, the deceased is wrapped in two or three sheets of plain white cloth; the presence of expensive textiles in a funerary context indicates that popular customs and official practice differed significantly.

A projection of photographs of Seljuk architecture and landscapes by Henri Stierlin is also visible throughout the exhibition. Historical views of the domes of the Great Mosque at Isfahan, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, are projected on the ceiling of one area. 

The exhibition will run through July 24 at the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Exhibition Hall

Liao Dynasty Noble Consort tombs discovered in Inner Mongolia

From：Chinese Archaeology  Writer：  Date：2016-04-25

From June to December 2015, the Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Inner Mongolia, and other units carried out rescue excavations on a Liao Dynasty cemetery in Xilingol, Duolun County, Xiaowangligou. Those rescue excavations salvaged two Liao Dynasty tombs (M1 and M2).

Tomb M1 had a total length of 25.6 meters, which included the passage leading to the tomb, the tomb doorway, a vaulted passage leading to the chamber, the chamber, and other tomb components. The passage leading to the tomb was 19.8 meters long, 1.5-4.6 meters wide; the arch doorway appeared to be made of wood, and wood and bricks were used to build the five brackets-and-blocks [interlocking wooden brackets used in traditional Chinese architecture]. Glazed tiles also decorated the tomb entrance, reflecting the high status of the tomb’s occupant. The vaulted passage leading to the chamber was rectangular, 2.60 meters long, 2.1 meters wide. The tomb chamber, made of brick, was round, with a diameter of 4.80-5.22 meters, and decorated with outer coffin. The outer was built by square timber as octagonal shape, and the topmost part was already gone. The chamber floor was paved with square brick and brightly colored red and white jade-bi-shaped pattern, with cinnabar outlining the shape of lotus petals in the center, giving the chamber a gorgeous character.

The tomb showed evidence of repeated disturbances and thefts, yet excavations still unearthed a large amount of funerary objects, mainly copper, iron, porcelain, amber, and silver. Parts of a horse harness, with gilding silver double-dragon design, were discovered. Most of the unearthed funerary objects were porcelain, including misty blue porcelain and Ding kiln white porcelain.

Tomb M2 consisted of a passage leading to the tomb, a vestibule, wooden-imitation structure doorway, a vaulted passage through to the tomb chamber, and the tomb chamber itself. The passage leading to the tomb was sloped, 23 meters long and 2-7 meters wide, and the tomb entrance was a brick span-arch. The vaulted passage, located north of the tomb chamber, was slightly rectangular with a domed brick roof. The tomb chamber was circular with a diameter of 3.92-4.28 meters, built of greenish blue bricks. There was a wooden outer coffin with a decorated dome top. The tomb had an overall length greater than 40 meters and a maximum depth of 11 meters.

The coffin in tomb M2 was located in the northern part of the tomb chamber on a funeral dais made of brick. The front of the funeral dais had seven lotus images that had at one time been brightly painted in the center. The coffin on the brick funeral dais had been painted with red lacquer and was made of thick planks of cedar. The interior of the coffin contained a wooden pillow with a design of a pair of butterflies. A decorated wooden screen surrounded the coffin. East of the funeral dais were the remains of a sacrificial animal, a dog.

Lotus shaped copper incense burner with handle unearthed from tomb M1 

and Gold-plated  double dragon pattern harness unearthed from tomb M1 

Although the tomb had been recently plundered, due to the collapse of the wooden outer coffin, the funerary objects inside the coffin had been concealed. Silver, copper, iron, jade, amber, glass, wood, clay, silk and other large artifacts were recovered during excavation. Among them several cultural relics appeared to resemble to those from the tomb of a Chen state princess of Liao Dynasty, but more fineness.

Two copper mirrors were also unearthed in tomb M2, mirrors that appeared to be functional and had probably been used during the tomb occupant’s lifetime. One was hexagon-shaped with flower petal edging and round buttons surrounding a phoenix. The other was a round lens, decorated with many images of swan geese, found hanging from the ceiling of the tomb chamber.

A large amount of porcelain was unearthed in the tomb, primarily Ding kiln white porcelain and Yue kiln celadon. The most striking characteristics of the unearthed porcelain are the gilded gold decoration on the mouths and feet of the porcelain objects and some with gold and silver lids. This is the first time such a great concentration of Liao Dynasty objects has been unearthed, reflecting the style of porcelain used at the Liao Dynasty court.

Also discovered in the tomb was a small square epitaph made of white marble, 89 centimeters on each side. It was inscribed, and documented in detail the tomb occupant’s life, experiences, and affairs. According to the inscription, combined with historical data, the tomb occupant was a Noble Consort* of Emperor Shengzong.

The two tombs, M1 and M2, appear to be from the same family. M1 appears to be from the middle and late period of Liao Dynasty, based on analysis of the unearthed artifacts, decorations, and tomb structure and design. Although epitaph tablet was not unearthed for tomb M1, based on the tomb scale and funerary objects, the tomb occupant also should be a celebrated noble person or Noble Consort family member of the Liao Dynasty. The occupant of tomb M2 appeared to be a Noble Consort of Emperor Shengzong of Liao Dynasty, which was the first discovery of noble Consort of Liao Dynasty.

Excavation of these two tombs, along with a thorough reorganization of tomb data, will inevitably play a role in promoting further Liao Dynasty historical research and may well solve many existing questions in Liao Dynasty historical research.    (Translator: Grace Warren)

An aerial view at Western Qing Tombs in N China

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Chongling for the Guangxu Emperor (1871-1908) at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province. The Western Qing Tombs, which was first built in 1730s, consist of 14 tombs. The Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties has been inscribed in the World Heritage List. (Xinhua/Liu Mincing)

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Tailing for the Yongzheng Emperor (1678-1735) at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province.

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Changling for the Jiaqing Emperor (1760-1820) at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province.

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Muling for the Daoguang Emperor (1872-1850) at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province.

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Tailing for the Yongzheng Emperor (1678-1735) at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province. 

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Changling for the Jiaqing Emperor (1760-1820) at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province.

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Yongfu Temple at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province. 

YIXIAN, Feb. 29, 2016 (Xinhua) -- An aerial photo taken on Feb. 28, 2016 shows the scenery of Tailing for the Yongzheng Emperor (1678-1735) at the Western Qing Tombs in Yixian County, north China's Hebei Province.

Source:  Xinhua

Greek Influences on the Pazyryk-style Wrestling Motif of the Keshengzhuang Bronze Buckles

SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS NUMBER 260 December 2015

Greek Influences on the Pazyryk-style Wrestling Motif of the Keshengzhuang Bronze Buckles
Lucas Christopoulos Lausanne, Switzerland

The site of Keshengzhuang (Keshengzhuang yizhi 客省庄遗址) is situated at about ten kilometers west of Xi’an City, near the ancient capital of the first emperor of the Qin (Qin Shihuangdi 秦始皇, 260–210 BC). In 1955 archaeologists found bronze belt buckles (or horse harnesses) at this site with decorations that represent two wrestlers (Fig. 1–5). Dating from the middle to the end of the Warring States period (475–221 BC), it is the oldest representation of wrestling in China.
These buckles are of Western Scythian origin, according to Emma C. Bunker, a metallurgy specialist on ancient China. In earlier publications, these wrestlers have, it appears, been wrongly associated with the Xiongnu of Mongolia (Di Cosmo 2002, Wu 1995, Lin 1994, Shao 1986).
The Keshengzhuang buckles exhibit two tall, elegant horses (not of the shorter Takhi or Mongolian type) in harnesses of a Scythian style, showing also two trees with their leaves turned upward and a flying swan or goose holding an object (perhaps an egg or a weight) that seems to be pinning the two wrestlers together. The swan is represented as having a human hand (Fig. 1–2) that holds an object. The two wrestlers look similar, like twins, with long wavy hair, and both are wearing Scythian-style loose trousers.
The two wrestlers are holding each other tightly, each man’s head on the other’s shoulder, the left wrestler holding the waist of his opponent with his right hand, and catching the back of the other’s knee with his left hand, in a tackling pose. The right wrestler holds his opponent with his right arm around the other’s neck, right hand grasping his opponent’s right shoulder, while his left hand is grasping the underside of his opponent’s right thigh, trying to defend against the tackle.
I have proposed earlier in two articles (Christopoulos 2010, 2012) that these two wrestlers represent the Dioscuri in the act of wrestling. According to Greek mythology, Leda, the queen of Sparta, was impregnated by Zeus, who took the form of a swan to seduce her.................................................... 

The Problem of Tocharian Origins: An Archaeological Perspective

SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS NUMBER 259  November 2015

This study explores the problem of Tocharian origins in a series of stages, beginning with the archaeological identification of the historical Tocharians, the immediate antecedents of the historical Tocharians, the potential for identifying a source for the Tocharian languages outside the Tarim Basin, and, finally, how proposed external origins might accommodate some of the various models of Indo-European expansion. The material culture that may be assigned to the proto-Tocharians on the basis of lexical-cultural analysis is also evaluated against the archaeological record of Xinjiang and adjacent regions. 

Genghis Khan and the Quest for God

How the World's Greatest Conqueror Gave Us Religious Freedom

Hardcover – 25 Oct 2016

by Jack Weatherford 

• Hardcover: 304 pages
• Publisher: Viking (25 Oct. 2016)
• Language: English
• ISBN-10: 0735221154

A landmark biography by the "New York Times" bestselling author of "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World "that reveals how Genghis harnessed the power of religion to rule the largest empire the world has ever known. 
Throughout history the world's greatest conquerors have made their mark not just on the battlefield, but in the societies they have transformed. Genghis Khan conquered by arms and bravery, but he ruled by commerce and religion. He created the world's greatest trading network and drastically lowered taxes for merchants, but he knew that if his empire was going to last, he would need something stronger and more binding than trade. He needed religion. And so, unlike the Christian, Taoist and Muslim conquerors who came before him, he gave his subjects freedom of religion. Genghis lived in the 13th century, but he struggled with many of the same problems we face today: How should one balance religious freedom with the need to reign in fanatics? Can one compel rival religions - driven by deep seated hatred--to live together in peace? 
A celebrated anthropologist whose bestselling "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World" radically transformed our understanding of the Mongols and their legacy, Jack Weatherford has spent eighteen years exploring areas of Mongolia closed until the fall of the Soviet Union and researching The Secret History of the Mongols, an astonishing document written in code that was only recently discovered. He pored through archives and found groundbreaking evidence of Genghis's influence on the founding fathers and his essential impact on Thomas Jefferson. "Genghis Khan and the Quest for God" is a masterpiece of erudition and insight, his most personal and resonant work.

The Military Operations of Genghis Khan and Sube'etei

The Mongol Conquests - 

The Military Operations of Genghis Khan and Sube'etei 

Hardcover – 15 Jun 2016

by Carl Fredrik Sverdrup

• Hardcover: 280 pages
• Publisher: Helion & Company Ltd (15 Jun. 2016)
• Language: English
• ISBN-10: 1910777714

The Mongols created the greatest landlocked empire known to history. It was an empire created and sustained by means of conquest. Initially an insignificant tribal leader, Genghis Khan gradually increased his power, overcoming one rival after another. After he had subjugated all tribes of Inner Asia, he struck southward into China and later attacked distant Khwariz in the Near East. Sube etei continued to make significant conquests after Genghis Khan died, conquering central China and leading a large force into the heart of Europe. Between them, Genghis Khan and Sube etei directed more than 40 campaigns, fought more than 60 battles, and conquered all lands from Korea in the east to Hungary and Poland in the west. This book offers a detailed narrative of the military operations of these two leaders, based on early Mongolian, Chinese, Near Eastern, and European sources. Making full use of Chinese sourced not translated properly into any European language, the account offer details never before given in English works. Detailed maps showing the operations support the text. Many conventional wisdom views of the Mongols, such as their use of terror as a deliberate strategy, or their excellence at siege warfare, are shown to be incorrect. This is a major contribution to our knowledge of the Mongols and their way of warfare. Contains 27 maps.

Visual Cultures of Mongolia - 2016 CSEN Field Program

Visual Cultures of Mongolia

August 8 - 20 2016

The Visual Cultures of Mongolia program is a 13-day exploration of Mongolia’s past and present seen in crumbling ruins, the rolling steppe, white-washed temples, nomadic homes, forested backcountry, modern museums, and ancient ritual sites. 

The program is structured around four primary themes:

Landscapes

Spiritual Life of Mongolia

Material Culture of Mongolia’s Past 

The Ruins of Empires Program

Participants will develop photographic and anthropological perspectives on the history, culture, religions, and artistic traditions of Mongolia from the deep past to the 21st century. 

You will visit and explore a variety of famous sites, live in Mongolian ger--traditional nomadic dwelling--and adventure on horseback, camelback, and foot in search of new vistas, forgotten finds, and remote places. 

The Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads invites applications from adults of all ages and backgrounds who wish to expand their horizons through interactive learning in the field this summer. 

For total program information please consult the Visual Cultures of Mongolia Handbook.

To apply, please complete and submit the Application.

Visual Cultures of Mongolia - 2016 CSEN Field Program

 

Location: Mongolia

Season: 

August 8, 2016 to August 20, 2016

Application Deadline: 

Sunday, May 1, 2016

Deadline Type: 

Exact date

Website: 

http://csen.org/Visual%20Cultures%202016/Visual%20Cultures%202016%20Announcement...

Flyer:  2016_visual_cultures_of_mongolia_handbook.pdf

Program Type

Volunteer

no

Affiliation:

Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads (CSEN)

Project Director:

Robert (Bob) Haft, The Evergreen State College

Project Description

The “Visual Cultures of Mongolia” program will take a photographer’s eye and an anthropologist’s approach to architecture, fine arts, religious and spiritual iconography, public and private visual landscapes, and the many juxtapositions in Mongolian imagery (sacred vs. profane, natural vs. built, foreign vs. indigenous) from deep prehistory to the 21st-century.  Our Program Director will lead participants in creating a photographic account and daily reaction journal of our team’s engagements with monuments, monasteries, and modern herders in order to cultivate a visual understanding of the complexities of Mongolian society and history.  Over the course of 13 days in Ulaanbaatar and the Mongolian countryside, the program explores four primary themes:

1. Landscapes
2. Spiritual Life of Mongolia
3. Material Culture of Mongolia’s Past
4. The Ruins of Empires

Period(s) of Occupation: Paleolithic through early modern sites in Central Mongolia, including Khar Balgas/Ordu Balik (Arkhangai Province), Khar Bukhyn Balgas and Sumyn Am (Bulgan Province), Rashaan Khad and Uglugchiin Kherem (Khentii Province), and Qara Qorum (Uvurkhangai Province). 

Notes: 

Each day the senior staff will lead our team through a variety of key sites of cultural, religious, and/or historical significance through a combination of lecture walks, hands-on activities, and critical engagement (photography, sketching, and journaling). Key sites are noted in the Program Map found in the Handbook. We will structure our exploration of program sites and other activities around the four primary program themes: Landscapes; Spiritual Life of Mongolia; Material Culture of Mongolia’s Past; and The Ruins of Empire. The following schedule lists the main events, activities, and locations for the program. These plans are subject to change at the discretion of the senior staff.

Project size: 

1-24 participants

Minimum Length of Stay for Volunteers: Full program length: August 8-20, 2016 

Minimum age: 

18; no upper age limit

Experience required: 

No prior experience required. Background in the following preferred but not required: photography, archaeology, religious studies, field research, anthropology, and/or history.

Room and Board Arrangements

Please see the attached Visual Cultures handbook for a full description of program room and board.

Cost: 

Participant tax-deductible contribution: $3,870. Please consult the program handbook for a complete description of what is and what is not covered by the participant contribution.

Academic Credit

Number of credits offered None 

Tuition: 

Participant tax-deductible contribution: $3,870

LOCATION

HideContact Information

Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball

2158 Palomar Ave

Ventura

California

USA

93001

csen.field.programs@gmail.com

Recommended Bibliography: 

Christopher Atwood's "Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire" (2004)

B. Baabar's "History of Mongolia" (1999)

Charles Bawden's "The Modern History of Mongolia" (1968)

Manduhai Buyandelger's "Tragic Spirits: Shamanism, Memory, and Gender in Contemporary Mongolia" (2013)

Nicola Di Cosmo's "Ancient China and its Enemies" (1999)

Natasha Fijn's "Living with Herds: Human-Animal Coexistence in Mongolia" (2011)

William Honeychurch's "Inner Asia and the Spatial Politics of Empire: Archaeology, Mobility, and Culture" (2015)

Esther Jacobson-Tepfer's "The Hunter, the Stag, and the Mother of Animals: Image, Monument, and Landscape in Ancient North Asia" (2015)

Chris Kaplonski's "The Lama Question: Violence, Sovereignty, and Exception in Early Socialist Mongolia" (2014)

The Deer Stone Project: Anthropological Studies in Mongolia 2002-2004. Edited by William W. Fitzhugh, J. Bayarsaikhan, and Peter K. Marsh (2005)

"The Secret History of the Mongols" (Igor de Rachewiltz translation if available)

"The Travels of Marco Polo"